Banyan Tree Case Essay

Banyan Tree is founded in 1992 by Ho Kwon Ping.The first Banyan Tree opened in 1994 in Phuket Island.The resorts were designed to blend into the natural environment. Corporate Strategies  K. P. Ho thinks that company should consider the physical and human environment when making business decisions Business Strategies Goals : â€Å"†¦one of the top two or three dominant players in a global space which is very niche but nevertheless very global† K. P. Ho said. Scope : Banyan Tree provides a luxury retreat for guests.The Banyan Tree target market is narrow and affluent. Competitive Advantage : Banyan Tree goes into locations that are not heavily developed and create sustainable resorts. Logic : Banyan Tree intends to expand locate in diverse locations Differentiation : Focus through a differentiation Environmental Analysis Sociocultural Factors Terrorist attacks September 11,2001 and the Bali bombings The SARS outbreak of 2003 Economic and Natural Factors The Asian Financial Crisi of 1997 The Indian Ocean Tsunami of 2004 Porter’s Five Forces Model Customer Buying Power Tends to be moderate Customers are few in number High buying power Few readily avaible Supplier Bargaining Power Tends to be high Due to the unique locations and high quality products Only a limited number of suppliers available to provide these products and services Entry Barriers Tend to be high Large capital requirements and government regulations Substitutes Due to Banyan Tree’s niche market and concept it is important for them to be aware of readily available substitutes Rivalry Among Existing Firms Banyan Tree Competition Aman Resorts Como Hotels Six Senses Hotels One and only Resorts Angsana Competition Four Seasons Shangri-La Hotels Strategic Direction Mission Statement We want to build a globally recognized brand which by inspiring exceptional experiences among our guests,instilling pride and integrity in our associates and enhancing the physical and human environment in which we operate, will deliver attractive returns to our shareholder. Vision Statement To build on its brands, Banyan Tree and Angsana to create a diversified group of niche resorts and hotels in strategic locations throughout the world, which would be complemented by residence and property sales,spa and gallery operations. Organizational Resource Analysis Strengths Well known and reputable brand name Strong brand identity Brand visibility Customer Loyalty Weaknesses Lack of knowledge of target market in global Small talent poot to choose from because properties are in remote locations Organization Resource Analysis Physical Unspoiled,unique locations Outstanding facilities Sustainability Sensitive design Human CEO is a major source of competitive advantage Well trained and motivated employees Corporate Partners such as American Express,Citibank etc. Financial Profits have risen significantly since the 2004 Tsunami High price to cost ratio Strong links to financiers General Organizational Resources Brand and organizational reputation Aspirational brand position Knowledge and Learning Entrepreneurship strategy Diverse culture

10 Things I Hate About You. Play and Movie

â€Å"I burn, I pine, I perish! † this is a quote from the movie â€Å"10 things I hate about you† and a play made by William Shakespeare called â€Å"Taming of the Shrew†. The movie â€Å"10 things I hate about you† was originated from a play from William Shakespeare called â€Å"Taming of the Shrew†. The director of the movie is Gil Junger. In â€Å"10 things I hate about you†, a new boy in school called Cameron falls in love with a girl called Bianca and tries to date her, but her father doesn’t allow Bianca to date anyone before Katherine, who is called a shrew because of her behaviors, does. Cameron persuades Joey to pay Patrick to date Katherine, so he can date Bianca. After some time, Patrick and Katherine fall in love with each other and Cameron makes out with Bianca in the end. The movie is an adaptation of the play and the author has changed to suit the audience, because the target audience of this movie is modern people, not people in Elizabethan English. To get audiences’ attention, it has used several filming techniques. There were lots of usages of filming techniques in the movie. For example, at the scene when Katherine was about to kiss Patrick, extreme close-up was applied to the scene in order to capture the emotion of the two characters. Also, Tracking is applied at the scene when Michael shows Joey around the school in order to involve the audience in the action and to show the environment. Both of these filming techniques were used in order to keep the audiences’ attention and to involve audiences into the scene in order to make the audiences feel the way that the director wants them to feel. In the movie, there were more techniques that were used. For most of the time in the movie, the colors that they have used are bright colors, such as pink, yellow. The lighting is usually bright, but in the scene where Bianca kisses Cameron, the lighting is very mild, like a moonlight, which has romantic connotation.

Acid rain

The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended. Acid Rain Acid rain is a rain or any other form of precipitation that is unusually acidic, i. e. elevated levels of hydrogen ions (low pH). It can have harmful effects on plants, aquatic animals, and infrastructure through the process of wet deposition. Acid rain is caused by emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which react with the water molecules in the atmosphere to produce acids. Governments have made efforts since the 1970s to reduce the release of sulfur dioxide into the atmosphere with positive results. Nitrogen oxides can also be produced naturally by lightning strikes and sulfur dioxide is produced by volcanic eruptions. The corrosive effect of polluted, acidic city air on limestone and marble was noted in the 17th century by John Evelyn, who remarked upon the poor condition of the Arundel marbles. Since the Industrial Revolution, emissions of sulfur dioxide and nitrogen oxides to the atmosphere have increased. In 1852, Robert Angus Smith was the first to show the relationship between acid rain and atmospheric pollution in Manchester, England. Though acidic rain was discovered in 1852, it was not until the late 1960s that scientists began widely observing and studying the phenomenon. [6] The term â€Å"acid rain† was coined in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith. 7] Canadian Harold Harvey was among the first to research a â€Å"dead† lake. Public awareness of acid rain in the U. S increased in the 1970s after The New York Times promulgated reports from the Hubbard Brook Experimental Forest in New Hampshire of the myriad deleterious environmental effects demonstrated to result from it. Occasional pH readings in rain and fog water of well below 2. 4 have been reported in industrialized areas. Industrial acid rain is a substantial problem in China and Russia and areas down-wind from them. These areas all burn sulfur-containing coal to generate heat and electricity. The problem of acid rain not only has increased with population and industrial growth, but has become more widespread. The use of tall smokestacks to reduce local pollution has contributed to the spread of acid rain by releasing gases into regional atmospheric circulation. [13][14] Often deposition occurs a considerable distance downwind of the emissions, with mountainous regions tending to receive the greatest deposition (simply because of their higher rainfall). An example of this effect is the low pH of rain (compared to the local emissions) which falls in Scandinavia. Acid rain The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended. Acid rain The French chemist Ducros first used the term ‘pluie acide' in 1845. The phraqse ‘acid rain' ,was brought in 1872 by Robert Angus Smith (Wellburn, 1994). Back in fifties, there were observations of lakes in Scandinavia losing their fish populations. Anglers and naturalists noticed that fish stocks in many lakes of southern Scandinavia were diminishing. Freshwater acidification had rapidly worsened over a few decades. Although acid rain and the acidification are a not new problem that has received considerable attention for many years, it was not until 1960s that scientists were able to link these effects to any specific cause. Later it was found to be atmospheric pollution. Acidification is not a regional phenomenon. In Scotland, studies show that the acidification began around the middle of the last centuries and the process has accelerated in the last three decades. In southern Norway, It has reported that 87 lakes had a pH below 5.5 (Mason, 1996). Damaged forests were becoming widespread in West Germany. As these examples show, acidification is an international problem. Pollutants may be carried with winds over distances, from points hundreds or thousands of miles away. Some countries are net importers of pollution, and others are exporters. The effects of acidification are varies, not only pollution of lakes and forests as previously mentioned, but also effects on fauna and flora, soil, groundwater and direct or indirect harm on human health, and all things are influenced by water quality through hydrological pathway (Thunberg, 1993). The aim of this report is to discuss causes and effects of acidification that has been concerned until now, and present possible short-term and long-term soluti on to acid deposition effects on water quality 1. Acidification and its causes Airborne pollution can influence the environment both directly and indirectly. Primary pollutant is Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides. When these are present in high concentrations, they can cause damage on environment and human's health. These direct effects are often peak in the vicinity of the emission sources. Industrial society discharges suphur dioxide and nitrogen that form sulphuric acid and nitric acid, which may be carried with the winds over long distances before descending in rain or snow. Indirect effects often occur as acidified soil and water far away from the sources of emission (Thunberg, 1993). There are gas-phase reactions, which produce acidity in the atomosphere. Sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides form suophuric and nitric acids on coming into contact with water. When these acids reach the ground in rain and snow, it is called ‘wet deposition'. However, acid oxides may also be deposited directy as gases, or cles, which is called ‘dry deposition'. The rates of dry deposition velocity may depend on the nature of the land surfaces. Rates of wet deposition depend on the precipitation rate, the washout ratio of dissolved pollutant per unit mass of cloud water or rain divided by the concentration of the same pollutant per unit mass of air (Wellburn, 1994. A low pH value means a high level of acidification. Water in neutral condition has a pH of 7 (Thunberg, 1993). Sulphur and Nitrogen Cycles are presented below (Figure 1 and 2). Figure 1. Sulphur Cycle Source: ICU (2003) Figure 2. Nitrogen Cycle Source: ICU (2003) 1.1 Sulphur Sulphur compounds are responsible for about two-thirds of the acidification of rain. Sulphur in gaseous form, sulphur dioxide (SO2), is mainly formed in the combustion of oil and coal. The rapid increase in emission of pollutants came after the war followed by consumption of fuel and oil. It was reported that approximately 20 million tons of sulphur are now emitted every year in Europe. There is also a great deal of airborne pollution in North America, where about 12 million tons of sulphur is released every year. Sulphur can be formed by naturally by eruption of vulcanoes, from seas and oceans and certain processes in the soil. However, 90 per cent of the emissions of sulphur to the atmosphere are derived from industrialised parts of Europe and North America. This is ten times the level that can be considered natural (Thunberg, 1993). 1.2 Nitrogen Nitrogen oxides (NOX) are grouped term of nitrogen monoxide (NO) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2). Nitrogen oxides are formed in all types of combustion, most of the NOX are formed by the reaction of nitrogen gas in the combustion air with oxygen. When the mixture of nitrogen gas and oxygen is heated, they interrelate to form NOX. The higher the combustion temperature, the more NOX will be formed. The largest source of NOX emission is road traffic. These emissions are reported to have doubled during the 1960s, approximately 22 million tons of NO2 are released every year in Europe. Certain types of fertilizer are another source of nitrogen pollution. Nitrate leaching intensified the acidification of the soil, which release unwanted substances such as aluminium (Thunberg, 1993). 2. The environmental effects of acidification 2.1 water acidification and aquatic biota Acidification was first noticed in the lakes. The initial victims of acidification are nutrient-deficient lakes in areas where the soil has a poor buffering ability (Thunberg, 1993). It is reported that many lakes in the Rocky Mountain have little alkalinity to buffer increase in acid deposition, however loss of alkalinity has been observed caused by high concentration of acid deposition due to the emission in the Rocky Mountain region (Turk et al, 1989). Figure 3. Acidified lake: A deep blue colour of a lake is a sign of acidification. Source: ARIC (2000) In severely acidified lake, the fish will have vanished entirely, bog moss will have spread out over the lake floor, and only few plant and animal species will remain. The first victims of acidification are crayfish, snails and mussels, certain types of zoo- and phytoplankton, and some species of mayfly. Usually, certain types of bog moss and insects those are resistant to acidification remains. This is not only low pH value that takes a heavy toll of fauna and flora. In acid lakes there are increased concentrations of aluminium in ion form, which is highly toxic to many organisms. The loss of fauna / flora is due to the combination of a lowered pH and aluminium poisoning. The level of other heavy metals also rises such as cadmium, zinc, and lead. Those heavy metals including aluminium flow into lakes from the acidified soils of the surroundings. The relationship of prey and predators will also change, for instance certain insects on which they usually prey begin to thrive when their predators are disappeared (Thunberg, 1993). 2.2 Soil/water interactions Acidification process takes place naturally in the soil. The plant releases hydrogen ions as it uptake nutrients. Though the growth itself is acidifying, there is no net acidification where growth and decay are about equal. However, the cycle is broken by harvesting, the acidifying process will take over. Soil acidification may have biological effects in the respects through lowering of the pH value, an increase in the levels of aluminium and other toxic compounds and a loss of plant nutrients due to increased leaching, consequently may lower drainage water pH (Thunberg, 1993). Moreover, Long-term increase in nitrogen supply may be responsible for alterations in root and shoot growth of plants(Carrol et al, 2003). Figure 5. Soil pH range source ANRA (2003) 2.3 Effects of forestry practices Forestry practices can cause the soil and water to become acidified in several ways. Forest growth change drainage water pathways to stream, and increase stream water acidity. Extensive clear cutting can also accelerate the acidification of surface water. Applying acidifying fertilizer also helps to acidify soil and water (Thunberg, 1993). Twelve years studies of acidification-induced chemical changes in soils of Norway spruce and Scot pine in southern Sweden reveals that pH in mineral soil decreased on average 0.17 units between 1988 and 1999. It is said that these changes in forest soil are mainly due to the extensive deposition of acidifying substances (sulphur and nitrogen compounds) during the latter part of the 20th century (Jà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½nsson et al, 2003). In addition, atmospheric pollution directly damages forest itself. Since the early 1970s, West Germany has experienced a rapid and widespread decline in the health of its forest trees; especially sensitive species were affec ted by exposure to low levels of pollutants (Ling et al, 1987). 2.5 Groundwater quality Most of the precipitation sinks to some extent into the ground. The more permeable the soil, the more water dribbles down. Normally acid rain will become less acid as it penetrates through the ground. However, where the soil becomes acidified and has less ability to neutralize, the effect will be decrease until it finally ceases. It is unlikely that acid groundwater will be harmful to human health, however toxic heavy metals, such as aluminium and cadmium may appear at elevated level where highly acidic. These metals are harmful for human health (Thunberg, 1993). 3. Solutions Solutions to the problems of acidification fall into two groups, which are cure and prevention. Remedial measures can be applied where the problems actually arise (i.e. soils and surface waters). Preventive measures can be applied at source (i.e. at point of emission of the sulphur and nitrogen oxides). The latter are expensive and the least acceptable to industry, however they are in fact more effective, more sustainable, and more immediately required (Park, 1987). Causal treatment by reducing aciditying emissions is the primary goal in a long-term as preventive measures, however outcomes from this approach are still uncertain and recovery may be slow. Indicative treatment, involving the addition of neutralizing agent such as powdered limestone to affected environment is the only realistic remedy in the short-term, and has become a widespread practice in Europe (Thunberg, 1993). 3.1 Short-term solutions Remedial action should be taken after the problems happen. This requires not simply the elimination of symptoms of damage (i.e. restocking fish in acidified lakes, planting new trees); it also involves restoration of natural chemical balances to ensure that damage does not reappear. Some materials in nature have ability to buffer, or neutralize, or offset acid input. Lime and limestone are the most accepted of a range of chemicals that can be used to buffer acidic materials. Lime has been added normally by spraying from helicopter to catchments, soils and forests to alleviate damage and improve conditions for environment (Park, 1987). With regard to the lakes and streams, this raises pH value of the water and decrease in the levels of heavy metals. After the liming many species quickly return to their former habitat (Thunberg, 1993). This approach has been most widely investigated in Sweden (Park, 1987). This measure had been made in UK as well. Stream chemistry and biological effect was monitored for 10 years after the catchments of three acidified Welsh streams at Llyn Brianne were limed in 1987/88. This monitoring reveals that chemistry in treated streams changed significantly as mean annual pH increased from 5-5.1 before liming to 6.1-6.2; mean annual aluminium concentrations decreased from 0.15-0.18 to 0.05-0.11 mg L-1, and calcium concentrations increased from 0.8-2.0 to 2.4-4.5 mg L-1. The abundance of Acid-sensive taxa in limed streams increased after treatment. Liming has also been used as a means of restoring acidified soils. This improves the productivity of croplands and forests. However, liming can cause negative impacts on stream, such as fine CaCO3 deposited on the stream banthos. In addition, liming is an expensive ‘cure' measure. Sweden spent approximately $10 million from 1980-1983 for liming. Moreover, it is not practical for many lakes and rives, for some streams it is no help at all. There is uncertainty in relation to the effect of liming in a long run. Many studies have undertaken for the effects of post liming over short timescales, yet little has known about the long-term effects. At least 10 years monitoring is recommended (Bradley et al, 2002). Liming is a interim measures that provide biological defence, however it does not attack the root caused of the problems. It has been said that ‘a sort of artificial respiration for dead lakes and streams'. Therefore, real effective measures are long-term prevention deliberate through a sustained policy, rather than cure. 3.2 Long-term solutions The only way to solve the problem of acidification in the long run is to reduce emissions of pollutants. The central point of the political debate over acid rain is the need to reduce rainfall acidity by controlling emission of SO2 and NOX at source, mainly from power stations and vehicles: Reducing emissions of SO2 from power stations by: > Burn less fossil fuel > Switch to low-sulphur fuel > Fuel desulphurisation > Sulphur reduction at combustion > Flue gas desulphurisation > Disperse flue gases Reducing emission of NOx from power stations by: > Reduce NOx emissions during burning > Reduce NOx levels after burning Reducing emissions of NOx from vehicles by: > Modify engines or exhausts to reduce emissions > Change to different type of engine > Transport planning It is said that technology of controlling and reducing such emissions already exist. Some methods should be applied separately or in combination to be able to bring reduction to agreed levels within agreed time-scales. However, this problem is not only to do with a technical one. Political goodwill is essential as this measures involves high cost. All the cost should be offset by positive side-effects such as the creation of new jobs and generation of useful by-products (i.e. commercial sulphuric acid), the values of conserving fish, forest and crops, and benefits in improved human health (Park, 1987). In recent decades, there have been national and international efforts to achieve reduction in emissions of sulphur and nitrogen compounds to the atmosphere (Ferrier et at, 2001). As previously mentioned, emissions of sulphur and Nitrogen are carried by air and deposited as gases and aerosols and dissolved in rainwater, in areas far from their sources. The quality of air is very much influenced by emissions in others, so it will benefit little for any country alone to reduce emissions. This is called transboundary Import-Export Budgets. Data for 1998 is presented in Appendix A Without international cooperation, there can be no real solution (Thunberg, 1993). The details of these treaties and protocols are presented in Appendix C 4. Improvement Recent data shows that both emissions seem steadily declined particularly after these treaties and protocols noted above have adopted (See appendix B). However, compared to reduction of SO2 emission, NOX emission need to be reduced further, especially U.S, whose emission has not been much reduced. Conclusion Acidification has a long history as posing adverse impacts on various ecosystems and human health. The main sources of pollution are SO2 and NOX. These pollutants are naturally exist, however recent increases of these pollutants are caused by human-induced factors, such as power generation and transportation. Remedial measures have been taken to abate damaged environment by acid deposition. Preventive measures have been adopted for preventing further damages. In attempts to make steadily progress for both redemption and prevention for solution of acidification for water quality, use of combination of short-term and long-term solution will be recommended.

Rodney King Case Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Rodney King Case - Essay Example The driver of the speeding vehicle was Rodney Glenn King. He and two fellow passengers were intoxicated at that time. When the car chase ended, the other two did not resist arrest but Rodney King did. According to the police officers present at the scene, he acted aggressively, seemingly threatening the officers. So, they beat him. In fact, within a few minutes 4 officers had badly kicked Rodney King, shocked him, and used a taser gun and batons. Rodney King sustained eleven skull fractures and major kidney damage (VanHise, n.d.). Had it not been for George Holliday no one would have known of this in-humane behavior. George lived in a nearby flat and happened to have a camera with which he recorded the entire incident. He later gave the tape to a local news channel and by the next day, March 4th 1991, the video was playing on news channels everywhere (BBC, 2002). LAPD maintained that officers acted in self-defense. But the now infamous George Holliday video showed a merciless beating of a man who apparently possessed no weapons of any kind and was under the influence of alcohol and looked to be harmless. The video tape got humongous publicity, and due to the public outrage brought on by it, prosecutors filed charges against some of the police officers involved that night (BBC, 2002). ... Everyone reacted with disbelief but for many, the very first emotion they felt was anger. Jury’s decision was the last spark needed to ignite riots from thousands of people from suppressed communities of Los Angeles (CNN Wire Staff. 2011). Three days of rioting ensued causing a loss of nearly $1 billion in L.A. alone. The riots then extended to other U.S. cities as well leading to 12000 arrests, 2000 reported injuries and 55 deaths. The extensive riots led to a federal civil rights trial of the four accused officers (Delk, 1995). This time around justice was served. The grand jury returned indictments against the officers on the 4th of August. The indictments were for three of the police officers for knowingly and deliberately harming an unarmed individual. Koon was accused because he allowed this illegal act to proceed and did not make an attempt to prevent it from happening. A compensation of 3.8 million dollars was given to Rodney as well (Linder, 2011). That beating on Mar ch 3, 1991 was not King’s last run-in with the law. In the years following the trial he was arrested many times. He has been arrested on charges of domestic abuse, DUI, robbing a convenience store and beating the clerk. Most of his problems stem from his addiction to alcohol. King’s parole officer Tim Fowler, describes him as a guy who can intelligently function in society. His problem, according to Tim, is alcoholism. King started drinking at an early age. Born is Sacramento in 1965, King was an exceptional athlete at his school and was attached to his father who passed away sooner than King would have liked. King helped his father in cleaning commercial buildings taking the late night shift of 5 pm to 2 am. This really disturbed his

How to break an unhealthy habit Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

How to break an unhealthy habit - Essay Example Scott (2008) advised that a 30 day trial should be planned to cease the habitual action. The individual should be persistent about resisting the habit and should try to divert his attention to an alternate thing. Replacing the need with an alternative is an important step in break bad habits, such as reducing time to watching TV will require an alternate source for finding information and entertainment. It is also advised to focus on one habit at a time and make rules to ensure fruitful results. The rules to break an unhealthy habit need to be kept simple to ensure that they shall be followed over an elongated period of time. Who doesn’t like a reward at the end of an ordeal? A friend should be given a certain amount of money that can serve as one’s reward at the successful breaking of an unhealthy habit. In the end, it would not be wrong to state that the traits of perseverance and will power bear great relevance in breaking any unhealthy habit since the individual usually finds himself longing for the desired action. The habit should be planned to be broken with an incremental approach, thus increasing the 30 day trial to 2 months, 3 months and so on. Losing unhealthy habits can result in a healthier and productive society that can progress at a greater

A Small Scale Study on the Perspectives of Saudi Undergraduate Assignment

A Small Scale Study on the Perspectives of Saudi Undergraduate Students on the Use of Smartphones as a Motivational Learning Tool in Preparatory Year Language - Assignment Example he primary language of international trade, science and technology and since Saudi Arabia is the world’s largest oil producing country, English is perceived as an integral part of the human resource development agenda of the Saudi government (Alseweed, 2009). Given the Saudi government’s commitment to improving English language skills in Saudi Arabia as evidenced by 6 years of compulsory English at school and the unsatisfactory results, several studies have been conducted on identifying the reasons for the unsatisfactory acquisition of English language among Saudi students and how to best motivate Saudi students for improved results (Alsewee, 2009; Liton, 2012; Khan, 2011). Informed by adult learning theories, this research proposes to investigate the effectiveness and efficiency of smartphone use in preparatory year language learners in Saudi Arabia. Adult learning theories inform that adult learners are more complex than children learners and that as adults, experienc es together with fixed opinions and perceptions instruct that adults are more amenable to learning that takes account of their specific needs and interests (Hough, 1984). Barrs (2011) considered the learning needs and interests of young adult students and the advances in mobile technology and argued that smartphones in particular have a particular value as a language learning tool for young university students. For the most part, these students own and use smartphones regularly. Moreover, young university students also rely on a number of smartphone applications for sharing and processing information and have access to this information via smartphones on a continuous level. Therefore smartphones can be used to channel the interest, experience and technological needs of young adult students as a... This study will therefore contribute to adult learning theories and the exploration of the possibility of smartphone technologies as a means of enhancing Saudi Arabia preparatory year student’s acquisition of a second language. A qualitative case study will be conducted among male students in the preparatory year at a college in Saudi Arabia. A phenomenological approach will be taken in that students will be interviewed as a means of discovering their experiences with leaning English and their attitudes toward smartphones as a learning tool and how this correlates with their interest and learning needs. The aim of this proposed research is to determine the extent to which the use of smartphones is a viable learning tool for improving the language proficiency of preparatory year language students in Saudi Arabia. Since this research focuses on a specific programme in Saudi Arabia, it is a social phenomenon that is more appropriately investigated using a qualitative case study. Since this research is investigating an educational programme with a view to determining whether or not the use of smartphones can improve language proficiency and thus motivational learning, an illustrative case study will be conducive to achieving this research objective. The illustrative case study will allow for the collection of rich and detailed person-centred data, describing individual perspectives and feelings and thus informing whether or not smartphones are appropriate learning tools for young adult language learners in Saudi Arabia’s preparatory language programme.

Philosophy in education Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Philosophy in education - Essay Example t it argues that the same tried and true methods and subject matter should continue to be taught to the next generation of students do the fact that it is both tried and true and has informed the preceding generations. On the other hand, progressivism takes the more â€Å"liberal† approach in positing that individuality, progress, and change are key cornerstones of a truly great education (Labaree 281). Naturally, he progressivists approach to education has been largely informed by many sociological, anthropological, educational, and psychological breakthroughs of the 21st century. If one were to choose to follow a strictly perennialist approach to education, a very formulaic approach would ensue; one that placed a high level of emphasis on utilizing the relevant and historical primary texts that have informed education and thought throughout the centuries. For instance, a class on music would be taught focusing upon classical music theory, the works of Brahms, Bach, and Beethoven, and healthy amount of analysis and discussion of the symphony and the role of chamber groups. In this way, contemporary writings or the introduction of new material, rock n roll, jazz, or even swing music would likely not be included. It is the belief of this particular student that the best approach is thereby the progressivist approach. Due to the fact that our world continues to change at such an alarming rate, focusing solely and single-mindedly upon a strict interpretation of classical texts, and the ways in which knowledge has been inferred for hundreds even thousands of years may not be an appropriate way to better the learning understanding of the pupils involved in the process. Although the progressivists also exhibit some shortcomings, it is the belief of this author that such an approach could better inform the next generation of open minded professionals with regards to the key information they should seek to

Application of Microscopy in Biomedical Sciences Lab Report - 1

Application of Microscopy in Biomedical Sciences - Lab Report Example New applications are used to find the path of the unexpected discoveries (Suhling, French and Pillips 2004). Atomic Force Microscopy is the most important technique used in the biomedical applications, but it cannot compete with the traditional electron microscopy and confocal microscopy because of speeds at which later techniques capture the images (Haupt, Pelling and Horton, 2006). Some other scholars also emphasized on the importance of confocal microscopy used for the observation of living cells. Use of the confocal microscopy is now common as non-ionizing radiations are employed, which are also used for the tissue preparation and study of the living cells. TGFÃŽ ² stands for the transforming growth factor ÃŽ ², a family of the secreted factors, which are involved in the growth regulation, migration, differentiation, apoptosis, adhesion in the multistep processes for the wound healing, and angiogenesis. For the epithelial cells, the most important factor of family TGFÃŽ ² is the TGFÃŽ ² 1. It also acts as the growth inhibitor and expresses the early gene JunB. TGFÃŽ ² 1 also plays an important role for the morphology and transcriptional programme of cells. Endothelial cells differ from the epithelial cells, and show the additional features in order to achieve the specific functions. In these cells, the TGFÃŽ ² 1 also controls the process of angiogenesis (Var on et al., 2008). TGFÃŽ ² performs the dual role as metastasis promoter and tumour suppressor and keeps the balance between Smad3 and Smad2. Smad2 is found to be deleted or mutated in human cancers. ROCK Inhibitor such as Y27632 is used for inhibition of the GFP expression (Stuelten et al., 2007). Anti-Endo180 and B3/25 used as the anti-transferring receptor were taken from the Medical College in New York. American Diagnostic Inc. provided the Mouse anti-human LDLR and Mouse anti Human Upar. The wild type known as the Endo 180 was

Public Policy- Environmental Policy Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Public Policy- Environmental Policy - Essay Example and more so, the influences of population growth, urbanization, industrialisation, new expanding technological advances, exploitation of resource and their impact. Critical value of restoring as well as enhancing environmental quality to the welfare and progress of man are well emphasized. The role of stakeholders- Federal Government, public and private organizations in using practicable measures and means that include technical and financial assistance to promote the welfare and maintain states under which nature and man can coexist in a productive way to fulfil the economic, and social needs of future and present generations .The policy was to directly educate the Americans that, safe, aesthetically- culturally pleasing, healthful, productive, safe, important historic, and natural aspects of our heritage, biodiversity, and free choice can only be attained through environmental preservation. And this could only be achieved when a state of equilibrium is attained between population and the available resource for use to allow high standards of living and enhance promote renewable resources and approach to maximise recycling of the non-renewable resources. This therefore calls for recognition that every person is entitled to enjoy a healthful environment and the responsibility he has to contribute towards preserving and the environment. The policy vividly states the responsibilities of each individual as trustee of the environment for succeeding generations and assure the society of productive ,culturally, safe, healthful, and aesthetically pleasing surroundings the legislation should further enhance positive use of the environment without degradation other unintended consequences. Furthermore it stresses that government should utilize interdisciplinary approach to ensure integrated use of social and natural sciences in planning and for indecision making to impact on the environment. In the present societies, economic and social activities are

Some have called the Cold War thethird world war. Would you agree and Research Paper

Some have called the Cold War thethird world war. Would you agree and why - Research Paper Example Any mutual understanding between the two super powers was highly unlikely this was vastly because of the great difference between the political ideologies of each of these nations and some of the previous events that led to great feelings of distrust. The hostility between the two countries was triggered during the First World War and then after the Second World War, it became even more pronounced. In the Potsdam conference, Truman’s depiction of the Soviets in his memoirs and Stalin’s attitude put down any hopes of good relations. The relations between the Soviets and American had become so turbulent that many historians began calling the Cold War as the ‘Third World War’. Although, it is indeed true that the fluctuating relations led to discord on an international front, but dubbing it as the Third World War may seem like an exaggeration and may not be an accurate representation of the entire event; therefore this aspect is quite debatable. The conflict b etween the United States and USSR though never made it to the battlefield but the countries were in fact on the verge of engaging in an open warfare during the entire event. 1 Roosevelt’s agreements and stance on the matter was quite controversial and contradictory that prevented the establishment of an agreement to safeguard peace and mutual cooperation between the two nations. However, during this period the world saw some of the most conspicuous methods of warfare and espionage that further exacerbated the relations and increased the countries suspicions towards each other. The cold war lasted for almost 4 decades, which took place after the complete shift in the political ideology of the Soviet through the dissolution of the USSR. The Cold War Era led to some very intense events that finally determined the fate of the USSR as well. I. Background of the Cold War The relationships between USSR and the United States started off as an uneasy alliance, for Joseph Stalin had a reputation for not honoring agreements and treaties. However, the west needed the influence of the USSR in order to counter the atrocious nature of the Nazis. Following the atomic bombings of the Japanese cities; Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the war was brought to a conclusive end, but not without triggering intense feelings of hostility between Russia and United States. After word got around through Einstein’s letter that the Germans were busy developing nuclear power that could be weaponized and capable of inflicting colossal damage on the enemy, the United States began to work tirelessly in order to obtain Nuclear technology thus starting what historians called the ‘Nuclear Arms Race’. 2 Fortunately, United States managed to get their hands on this weapon first after months of an intensive research program that was known as the ‘Manhattan Project’ and a successful testing in the New Mexico desert was an ego boost to the Americas that had just entered t he war. The USSR and America had always been competitive towards each other and in some way Truman attitude towards Stalin during the Potsdam Conference is also responsible for destroying any chance of mutual agreement between the two nations; as the United States were quite rigid in their dealings with the soviets during the entire conference. Modern historians often accused Truman of

Single parents in the military Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Single parents in the military - Article Example The discussion in this paper is mainly about single parents, but not in the general population, the main focus would be the single parents in the military. The United States Army consists of combat, and aviation and water transport service forces (Lawrence, 2002). It is well-ordered, trained and well-equipped in order to be capable of combating on land. It has two major responsibilities and they are (1) to prepare the land forces for war, and (2) expand the peacetime components needed by the army to fulfill the war’s needs. In the early 1990s, the number or single parents in the military increased (Zellman, Johansen, Meredith, & Selvin, 1992). Civilian single parents already encounter huge problems with their children that leads to work disruptions, thus, these problems is also likely to occur to single parents in the military as they work with longer and unforeseen hours. In 1992, single custodial parents in the military reached a number or 66,000 and this caused a slight problem as not all of them were able to leave for the Persian Gulf War (Sagawa & Campbell, 1992). The Presidential Commission on the Assignment of Women in the Armed Forces, then, asked the Pentagon to review their policies regarding deployment of military personnel. The single parents in the military are not only the ones having the said dilemmas; there were also the dual military families or those whose parents are both in the military. In the early 1990s, 2.9% of the active duty personnel are dual military families (Zellman et al. , 1992). Along with single parents, they composed 7% of the active duty armed forces and were also hindered to be deployed for the Persian Gulf War due to their incapability of leaving their family behind. The Commission proposed not to allow single parents and dual military families to be deployed for the sake of their children (Sagawa & Campbell, 1992). This paper would focus on answering the problem of how

Highly active DNA cells Essay Example for Free

Highly active DNA cells Essay Some people are born with some highly active DNA cells in their body. In my case, that highly active DNA gene was the Fashion gene. I recall having a highly developed fashion sense at a very early age. It all started when I learned to hold a crayon and got my first coloring book. I remember that it was a Barbie Fashions coloring book and my mother taught me how to color within the lines using only the 8 basic colors that was in the crayon box. I became addicted to the Barbie Fashion coloring books and my mother noticed that I was also getting frustrated by my 8 color crayon set. That is why my crayon coloring set kept growing in number until I finally maxed out at 72 colors. Eventually, I learned the rudiments of drawing in school and I began to hone my drawing talent by copying the Barbie designs from my coloring book collection. As I grew out of the Barbie era of my childhood, I came to be influenced by the young teen fashion magazines like Seventeen and Teen Vogue. Magazines that I got to know about because my relatives who knew of my passion for fashion would often gift me with fashion magazine subscriptions for my birthday and other holidays. I began to replicate the dress style in those magazines while throwing in my personal touch in order to come up with my own highly distinct and memorable fashion style which was often copied by my friends and schoolmates. Indeed, she who has the keen fashion sense will always start the trends. Don’t get me wrong. I did not grow up as a fashion obsessed teen. I had a well rounded youth that included school, social, sports, and other extra curricular activities. My parents made sure that even though I spent most of my time poring over fashion related activities, I would still have a wide view of the world around me and learn how to deal with other people in various settings. That is the reason why they sent me to soccer camp over four summers. For a few weeks in every year, my attention was turned from my budding talent for fashion towards learning the necessary disciplines of drive, determination, and the importance of being a team player. Those are things that I would never learn from fashion magazines but would need in order to succeed in the highly competitive fashion industry. While at school, I was often assigned to the decorations committee for various school functions and it was with great pride that I often helped my friends design their dance and prom gowns. My designs really turned heads every time my friends and I walked into the gym. But, when I was not busy with such activities, I could almost always be found at band practice after classes. I was a member of the school band since I was nine years old and I was assigned to play the drums. Knowing that I had spent practically all my life following the daily goings on in the fashion world, my parents were not surprised when I told them that I waned to major in Advertising, as well as marketing and communications. I had always talked of becoming a member of the writing or design staff of a fashion magazine and they knew that I was never one to let go of my ambitions. The one thing that always amazes my family and friends is that I am a person who can be so multi-tasking that it almost seems like I no longer sleep at night. Time seems to be my friend which is why I get to enjoy other activities like writing fictional stories and poetry, aside from my constant doodling of my fashion ideas on a sketch pad. When my parents asked me, â€Å"Where do you see yourself five years from college graduation? † after I graduated from high school, my reply was almost instantaneous, that is the same answer that I wish to share with you now. I am a very passionate person when it comes to fashion. So, it is pretty obvious that I see myself working in the creative or advertising department of a leading fashion magazine. I know that will not be hard to achieve. After all, I have spend all my time constantly preparing for that career. I know that is what I want and I know that I can make it happen for me. There is nothing that I cannot accomplish provided my mind and heart are set upon achieving it.

Easy Jet: Company Operation Strategy

Easy Jet: Company Operation Strategy This report is about the Easy Jet airline company operation strategy and illustrates it order winner qualifier and its supply chain management. Easy Jet, creation of Stelios Haji-Ioannou, the son of a Greek shipping magnate who founded the company, based on the low-cost, no-frills model of the US carrier Southwest, in 1995. In November 1995, Easy Jet started flights from Luton to Glasgow and Edinburgh with two leased Boeing 737-300s with at a price of  £29 one way. As it was the beginning Easy Jet acted as a virtual airline which contracts in everything from pilots to check-in staff. Reservations and Seats are being sold over a telephone reservation system only. In 1996 Easy Jet takes delivery of its first wholly owned aircraft and goes international with first services to Amsterdam from Luton. In 1997 Easy Jet launched its website, www.easyjet.com which than from 1998 onwards form an vital part of the business concept and this provides for some 90% of the bookings today. In Janua ry 1999 first of five Airline series is transmitted on ITV, giving the company nationwide opening to an audience of around nine million viewers, providing free publicity. Now Easy Jet offers 88 routes from 36 European airports. Easy Jet further expanded its fleet and routes by acquiring British Airways low-cost subsidiary Go. The grouping deal was completed in August 2002 and created Europes biggest low-cost airline, before rival Ryanair. Easy Jet main focuses is to provide its customers with safe, good value, point-to-point air services. Easy Jet offers a regular and reliable product and fares appealing to leisure and business markets on a range of European routes. To attain this they will develop their citizens and set up lasting associations with their suppliers. The achievement of Easy Jet is based on some fundamental trade features which save costs, at the same time as continuing to attract people flying. Easy Jet uses internet for online booking and issuing of travel vouchers which in returns saves enormous fees normally paid to travel agents. The www.easyJet.com web site is open for business 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, 365 days a year for public and this website is designed as user friendly for providing better services. Easy Jet offers one-price, one-way tickets, giving passengers greater litheness, not forcing them passengers to be away from home. If any changes to be made in tickets Easy Jet only charges  £10. Easy Jet focus on the short term travel business and focuses only on the 149 seats Boeing 737 aircraft. This operation strategy maximises services, whilst dropping maintenance costs. Easy Jet prefers smaller, less congested airports where landing charges are lower and turnaround times are faster. Easy Jet does not offer free in-flight food or drinks. Snack food and drinks can be bought before or during the flight. Easy Jet favours an casual business culture with a very flat administration configuration, which eliminates unnecessary and une conomical layers of organization. All workforces are encouraged to dress casually, (Source: www.easyjet.com). In order to maintain the good reputation and to maximise the profit company needs to make and maintain long term plans, and this plan includes company goals and understanding challenges so that to get best outcome from the implemented strategies and to differentiate companies from its competitors. As in this competitive world, internet based and global open market, it is very essential for companies to have a clear plan for attaining their targets (Hill, 2005). To maintain the shareholder value so called business strategy, for the success of company business strategy must be supported by others operations like finance, administration and marketing. Like a football team, players support the team strategy same in the company everyone role in the company supports the business strategy. Operation strategy is long term plan for the operation function that helps in outlining the design, procedure and making sure the correct use of resource and man power to support the business strategy. Operation strategy must be aligned with the business strategy to get the best of the best outcome. For the smooth running of operation and maximising the profit it must be known that what customers company is serving, what are the companies values. Secondly market environment must be known, markets trends, economic status of the market, political values and trends in the society. Environmental scanning let the company knows to explore opportunities and treats, exploring gaps in what consumers need and what competitors are doing to fulfil those requirements (Waller, 2003). Operation strategy can be formulated when business strategy is finalized. Operation strategy of Easy Jet can be best illustrated on its order winners and order qualifiers. Order winner and qualifiers are both very much important, with the order qualifier an organisation needs to qualify and re-qualify to stay in competition and in the market, order winner and qualifier is based on time and depended on market status, so they both changes over the time in the market, (Hill, 2005). Order winners and order qualifiers are the backbone for the successful operation management, (Hill, 2005). The first and main order winning of Easy Jet is low cost, it means that Easy Jet offers services at a low cost and prices, and this is their main business strategy, and this strategy helps Easy Jet to maximise its profit margin by implementing low cost strategy. Easy Jet mostly focuses on cutting costs in their operations, like reducing labour cost, materials and other facilities which can be avoided in providing services. Easy Jet emphasises on giving some extra training to employees to get the maximum outcome and lowering the fragment. Facilities which are provided by Easy Jet are rationalized, using mostly single type of airlines so that minimizing the cost on maintenance of different types of aeroplanes also routes of Easy Jet are mostly short so it can help Easy Jet to minimise cost of crew changes, maintenance, inventories of parts and many other administrative charges whi ch varies from airport to airport. Easy Jet mainly uses low crowded airports and prefers secondary airports in major cities to avoid high administrative charges. Mainly route is point to point so that they dont have to invest extra on onward connection for passengers and baggage. No meals provided and passengers can buy what they want on board and no printed boarding passes to avoid convolution and speed up ticketing and boarding. Easy Jet human resource department also plays important role in this strategy, they train newly employees to perform multi tasks and emphasis on team work to maximise the customer services. Quality of service is Easy Jet order qualifier as their strategy focuses on the service regularity which means how much their quality fulfils customers demands and single class configured cabins. Dependability is order qualifier for Easy Jet, as Easy Jet fast and reliable deliveries of parcels across Europe in low cost gives them strength to attain and sustain their cus tomers. Flexibility is the order winner for Easy Jet as they provide wide range of basic and frequent services, changes the volume of services and changing the timings of services to fulfil the customers demands. Low cost administration gives them to attain maximum profit and Easy Jet focuses on entirely IT system which can accessed from anywhere in the world so they are embraced with the concept of paperless offices. Strong work force, highly trained, quick responsive to the customers, flexible in performing multi-tasking and strong customer and technical capabilities of the employees are the order qualifiers of Easy Jet. Low price of tickets is the order winner of Easy Jet, Easy Jet offers very cheap tickets to different destinations of Europe as compare to the other airlines, which not only attract more customers but also this strategy playing important role in maximizing their profit as Easy Jet already reduced other unwanted costs. Using of latest IT system is order qualifier f or Easy Jet, Internet has greatly uplifted electronic commerce and deeply linked customers and suppliers. Minimising the overall journey time is order winner for Easy Jet, fast turnaround keeps Easy Jet services continue for high earning and avoiding its planes to return to main point, and by doing so it has its number of flights increased with low number of planes. Consistency and reliability is the order qualifier for Easy Jet as more than 90% of the flights arrived within 15 minutes which is nearly equal to British Airways. Easy Jet increased its customer service and save  £750,000 on existing functioning costs by signing an on demand CRM deal with Right Now Technologies. With Europes leading low-cost airline growing its passenger volume by 20% each year, additional operational costs will be achieved with a series of on-going modern customer service projects. At first Easy Jet will set up Right Now Serviceà ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ across all seven of its European web sites to help manage the linked enlargement in customer communication, (Source: DataMonitor). For the successful business there must be interactions and collaboration between operations and marketing. The operations department are accountable for providing the order-winning and order-qualifying criteria identified by marketing group, that empower products to win orders in the open market. This process starts with the corporate strategy and ends with the standards that either keeps the company in the running order qualifiers, (Hill,2005). The main airport for Easy Jet is Luton airport. Although Easy Jet flights to many Europe major cities, Easy Jet still misses some important airports to stay like London Heathrow airport. People who live in London, this is a very problematic point to move to Luton airport to get the flights. Although by this Easy Jet save extra charges but loses some customers as well so at one side Easy Jet saves money on other side it loses customers. Online booking service is indeed order winner for Easy jet but some elder people and people who dont use internet find difficult and not very convenience to book, so Easy Jet must have telephone line services for booking which will not cost them much but this service will indeed attract more customers and booking services of Easy jet will be more user friendly, and this use of IT services and online booking services can become their order winner for the company. Low cost air tickets is order winner for Easy jet as they dont have any interaction with tr avel agents but as the flying demands are getting more and more day by day so Easy Jet needs to establish some business to business relationship with travel agencies to attain more customers especially corporate customers which normally get tickets from travel agencies, (Source: easyjet.com). From 1995 until now, Easy Jet has increased their aircrafts from only two to 92 aircraftsà ¯Ã‚ ¼Ã…’including 21 aircrafts of Airbus A319, 33 aircrafts of Boeing 737-700 and 38 aircrafts of Boeing 737-300, at the end of September 2004. And for the expansion of its market, they prepare to increase their Airbus aircraft to 117 during the next three years. As the airline industry of whole world is not prosperity after 9/11 attacks. So that the aircraft deal from, Easy Jet is a very big deal for the suppliers and there is really big benefit for the suppliers. From this point, it is clear that bargaining power of Easy Jet is higher than the suppliers. The direct point of Easy jet supply chain management is to deliver the exact material to the precise position at the right time. The next objective is to manage the parts, procurement and supply chain function as resourcefully as achievable. At this time the company divided its service into seven segments, Parts trading, allotment, additio nal remarketing, preliminary provisioning and sourcing, inventory letting, revamp managing, stockroom and logistics. With the integrated supply chain concept, instead of providing these functions on an individual or a little at a time basis. Easy Jet offers a sustain alternative that embraces the whole range of its various services. It helps in holding much more functions an operator requires in a consistent overall plan that is shaped in alliance with the airline, (Harvard Business Review). So according to Porters generic strategies, which is purely based features of the operation of Easy Jet, main operation strategy the Easy Jet engaged is focus cost management, which is called low cost, no frills,(www. www.bized.co.uk) So it concluded that Easy Jet adopted simple straight forward low cost strategy, minimizing and avoiding unwanted cost to be in competition with other airlines operating in the sky. Easy Jet operation strategy mainly works with effect because quick and on time turnaround, cheap services, avoiding paper work like paper used in ticketing during boarding and reduced the cost of travel agents. Numbers of planes are few but utilisation rate is perfect and exact, mainly using low rate airports for landing and take-off. Some threats and risks are there for Easy Jet, as time goes on and Easy jet gets bigger and renewal of contracts needed so there are chances of raise in cost. Easy Jet key to success is remaining undemanding so that cost can be remained low and keep the usage of planes high so that they can guarantee their constant profit and quality service. References:- Hill,T. (2005), Operation Management, Plagrave Macmillan NewYork. Waller, L.D. (2003), Operation Management, Gray Publishing Kent. Information available on www.easyjet.com, accessed on 10th December 2010. Information available on www.datamonitor.com, accessed on 25th November 2010. Information available on www.crm2day.com, accessed on 15th November 2010. Afuah, A. and Tucci, C. 2002, Internet Business Models and Strategies: Text and cases, 2nd edition, McGraw Hill Information available on www.businessteacher.org.com, accessed on 15th December 2010. Journal paper of Harvard Business Review, Strategies to flights low cost rivals. Information available on www.www.bized.co.uk, accessed on 25th December 2010. Information available on www.www.docshare.com, accessed on 25th December 2010.

Drug Discovery And Development

Drug Discovery And Development A drug is created through lots of stages. This essay provides the description of the basic concepts of drug discovery and development, and identifies the role of some medicinal chemistry, such as pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. There are lots of processes of creating new drugs, where we may mainly distinguish between drug discovery and drug development. Drug discovery comes about in several different ways. The method is to subject new chemical entities to a set of screening tests designed to detect different types of biological activity. These include in Vitro screens as well as in Vivo screens. The history of drug discovery has changed gradually. Before 1990, medicines were produced by chemical synthesis or were isolated from existing compounds exhibiting poly-pharmacology or side effects, such as plants and herbs. Also, screenings were carried out through low throughput screening. More recently, the understanding of human receptors and substances which cause specific activity has proceeded, so this led to new drugs, such Cimetizine and Ranitizine. The studies of DMPK and ADME have progressed as well, so the studies were applied to drug discovery. In addition to that, the change from low throughput screeni ng to high throughput screening allowed mass screening. Since 2000, the incredible advance of understanding of the human genome has led to novel medicines, such as Aranesp, Epogen, and Enbral, which are more biological than before. Toxicology developed and has been adapted to drug discovery as well. At the same time, attempts with using computers are increasing. As I mentioned above, the method of finding lead compounds has changed. Nowadays, main six methods to find lead compounds are becoming popular. Firstly, it is to improve existing drugs. Secondly, it is to create new drugs on the basis of natural products. Also, rational drug design using protein crystallography is becoming popular. The rest is high throughput screening, fragment screening, and virtual screening. In addition, there are the main two methods of designing structures, which are structure based design and ligand based design respectively. Targets of finding new lead compounds are mainly eight targets, which are re ceptors, enzymes, ion-channels, nuclear receptors, kinases, bacterial/viral targets, human genome, and others. The process of drug discovery is complex, so it takes 4 to 8 years to finish it. In the process of drug discovery, the small structural changes of chemicals sometimes cause large changes and effects. For instance, propranol shows both ÃŽ ²1 andÃŽ ²2 adrenoceptor selectivity. On the other hand, atenolol shows only ÃŽ ²1 adrenoceptor selectivity. The structural differences between propranolol and atenolol are small, but their showing effects are different respectively. Once a new chemical compound has been discovered, drug development has to be carried out, culminating in its being licensed for use and marked. Preclinical tests on isolated tissues and in animals should ensure that the drug has the required mechanism of action and at least in animals will produce appropriate system responses. At this stage, the new drug will be tested against standard drugs in comparative assays. Toxicity tests in animals should in most cases allow some prediction of toxic effects in humans. In comparisons of drugs used clinically, potency does not necessarily relate directly to therapeutic usefulness. It is important to consider also the maximum achievable response and the incidence of unwanted effects. Clinical testing in humans involves four phases. Phase 1 is the measurement of pharmacological activity, pharmacokinetics and side effects in healthy volunteers. Phase 2 is pilot studies in small groups of patients to confirm that the drug works on the target condit ion and to establish the dosage regimen to be used in phase 3. Phase 3 is formal clinical trials in a large number of patients to determine the incidence of unwanted effects. Phase 4 is post marketing surveillance to establish efficacy and toxicity in general use. The detection of rare, adverse effects is most likely to occur in this phase. It takes 5 to 8 years to finish this stage, and costs much money than drug discovery stage. It takes about 10 to 12 years from an idea to marketable drugs totally. Also, it takes approximately 800 million dollars to develop one new drug. The duration of a drugs patent from the time of its registration with the UK Patent Office is 20 years. Therefore, pharmaceutical industries have to recoup their investment and make a profit, some of which will spend researching and developing other drugs. After a drugs patent expired, other pharmaceutical companies can make and sell the quite similar drug which is called a generic drug. As a result, the price often drops significantly. As a generic drug has become popular among people due to the price and the efficacy, generic drugs market is growing rapidly. The definition of medicinal chemistry Medicinal chemistry is a chemistry based on discipline which is involved in aspects of biological, medical and pharmaceutical science. Also, it is concerned with the invention, discovery, design, identification and preparation of biologically active compounds. The chemistry is a study of their metabolism, mode of action at a molecular level, and relationships between chemical structure and activity. The role of pharmacokinetics in drug discovery and drug development Pharmacokinetics is the science of exploring the changes in drug concentrations throughout the body with time. It is important to understand the time course of drug effects. The time course of drug action usually follows that of the concentration at the target site. There are 4 main phases in the pharmacokinetic process, which are absorption, distribution, metabolism, and excretion. Drugs can be administered through the gut or by other route, which is called absorption. Most drugs dont spread rapidly throughout the whole of body water. A drugs penetration into these compartments is indicated by its volume of distribution that would be required to hold the amount of drug in the body at the measured plasma concentration. The plasma membrane of the cells constitutes a hydrophobic lipid barrier and drug permeation can occur by direct distribution through the lipid and carrier mediated transport. Diffusion of a drug depends on its concentration gradient and its diffusion coefficient. The concentration gradient established within the cell membrane depends on the drugs lipid/water partition coefficient. This is estimated by the drugs distribution between water and a simple organic solvent. Most drugs are ionised in aqueous solution. The ionised form is hydrophilic, so the ionisation impedes passive membrane permeation. When a drug enters the body, it is subjected to the processes that have been developed for dealing with toxic foreign molecules, which are called metabolism and excretion. The liver is the main site of drug metabolism, and the kidney is the main site of excretion. There are some important terms in pharmacokinetics, which are half-life, AUC, and drug clearance. Half-life is the time taken for any given plasma concentration to decrease by 50%. AUC is a measure of the extent of absorption. Drug clearance is defined as the volume of plasma cleared of drug per unit time. Drug metabolism in drug discovery The main purpose of drug metabolism is to cause detoxification. Metabolism involves two main processes. Firstly, the molecule is made more hydrophilic to reduce the possibility of reabsorption in the renal tubules. Secondly, it is conjugated to reduce its effects and aid excretion. As I mentioned above, there are two phases of metabolism. Phase à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚   is mainly oxidative reactions, such as oxidation, reduction, and hydrolysis. The oxidation of a drug requires the cytochrome P450 which is the major enzyme. Phase à ¢Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã‚ ¡ is conjugation reactions with sugar residue, such as glucuronidation, glycosidation, and sulfation. UDPGT is the main enzyme at this stage. Interestingly, there are species differences in metabolism. For example, lidocaine is metabolised to 4-hydroxylidocaine by hydroxylation in rats. On the other hand, lidocaine is metabolised to monoethylglycinexylidide by deethylation in dogs or men. The main reason why these differences occurred is the difference o f enzymes between species. There are some particular enzymes in men and dogs, but there may be not the enzymes in rats. When the situation happens, species differences occur in metabolism. to The role of pharmacology in drug discovery Pharmacology concerns the study of how drugs affect the function of host tissues or combat infectious organisms. In most cases, drugs bind selectively to target molecules within the body, usually proteins but other macromolecules as well. The main drug targets are receptors, enzymes, ion channels, and transporters. It is generally desirable that a drug should have a higher affinity for its target than for other binding sites. One of the main roles of pharmacology in identifying new drugs is drug target identification with using compounds known pharmacological properties to identify new target mechanisms, and identifying new receptors, ion channels, transporters, and enzymes. Receptors are protein molecules in or on cells that act as recognition sites for endogenous ligands such as neurotransmitters, hormones, inflammatory mediators. Many drugs used in medicine make use of these receptors. The effect of a drug may produce the same responses to an endogenous ligand or prevent the actio n of an endogenous ligand. A drug that binds to a receptor and activates the cells response is termed an agonist. A drug that reduces or inhibits the action of an agonist is termed an antagonist. Some drugs produce the maximum response that the tissue can give. These are termed full agonists. Other drugs may not give the maximum tissue response in any concentration, which is called partial agonists. A drug shifts the equilibrium in favour of the non active form, so reducing background activity. Such drugs are referred to as inverse agonists. An antagonist is defined as a drug that reduces the action of an agonist. There are three main antagonism mechanisms, which are competitive antagonism, irreversible antagonism, and non-competitive antagonism. A competitive antagonist binds to the receptor and prevents the binding of an agonist. If the antagonist binds reversibly, then the effect of the antagonist can be overcome by raising the concentration of the agonist so that it competes mor e effectively for the binding sites. In irreversible antagonism, the antagonist binds irreversibly, reducing the number of receptors available for binding. In non-competitive antagonism, the antagonist does not block the receptor itself but blocks the signal transduction process initiated by receptor activation. Enzymes catalyse a chemical reaction, so convert substrates to products. In most cases, enzymes are proteins, and their targets are intracellular. Ion channels are fundamental membrane proteins, and convey ions across cell membranes. There are three main types of ion channel, which are voltage-gated channels, ligand-gated channels, and G-protein regulated channels. Voltage-gated channels are closely involved in ion gradients, and make the tissues excitable. Ligand-gated channels consist of a number of transmembrane subunits. The channel governs fast cell to cell communication. G-protein regulated channels modulate the excitability of excitable tissue. Transporters are protei ns which can penetrate a cell membrane without modifying it, and transport substances. Drugs can modify this action by blocking a binding site, or acting as a false substance, and being transported into a cell. The importance of oral administration and oral bioavailability Oral administration is the most convenient and acceptable route, because of the importance from the point of view of patients. It is much easier for patients to take medicine orally than taking by other routes. The important factors of oral drugs are potency, selectivity, rapid dissolution, and rapid transfer across the membranes of the gastrointestinal tract, low clearance, absence of dose independent and time independent in pharmacokinetics, and no interaction with other drugs. Oral bioavailability is the proportion of the orally administered dose that reaches the systemic circulation. Incomplete release from the dosage form, destruction within the gut, poor absorption and first-pass elimination are important causes of low bioavailability. There are two main factors controlling oral absorption, which are physical barriers and biological barrier. Physical barrier comprises solubility, ionisation, lipophilicity, drug formulation, and interaction with other substances. As I discussed above, solubility, lipophilicity, and ionisation are closely related to absorption. Drugs must dissolve to establish a concentration gradient for absorption, the rate and extent of absorption depending on the pharmaceutical formulation. Rapid absorption of a drug requires its disintegration into small particles. In general, food will slow absorption by reducing the drugs concentration. On the other hand, biological barriers comprise efflux, transporters, and metabolism. Efflux is a biological reaction which forces out unnecessary substances. The reaction prevents drugs from entering inside of a cell. Metabolism is one of the biological barriers, because of different enzymes which are mainly CYP 450. Transporters are one of biological barriers, but the role of transporters preventing drugs from entering an interior cell is not clear now. The example of drugs Histamine is a mediator in both acute inflammation and the immediate hypersensitivity response. There are two main types of histamine receptor which are H1 and H2 receptors. Antihistamine drugs can target each receptor type. The main physiological aspects of the gastrointestinal tract are gastric acid secretion. The excess of gastric acid secretion cause peptic ulcers. In peptic ulcer, the balance between gastric acid secretion and mucosal-protective mechanisms is altered. The main approach to peptic ulcer is drugs used to reduce acid secretion. The H2 receptor antagonists, Cimetizine, Ranitizine, reduce gastric acid secretion in response to histamine, gastrin, and food. The proton pump is responsible for the secretion of gastric acid into the stomach. Therefore, the proton pump inhibitors show the effect of reduction in the secretion of gastric acid. Antibacterial drugs are compounds used to treat bacterial infections. There are some targets for antibacterial drugs, such as cell wall, nucleotide mechanism, and protein synthesis. One of the important targets is cell wall which provides support for the membrane. Its main constituent is peptidoglycan which is an excellent target for drugs. Drugs affecting peptidoglycan synthesis include penicillins and penicillin G. Conclusion I learned the basis of drug discovery and development through these lectures, and I found the importance of medicinal chemistry, such as pharmacology and pharmacokinetics. It is essential to understand medicinal chemistry for discovering and developing novel and ideal drugs. At the same time, I feel we should consider discovering and developing drugs from the point of view of patients as well.